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Contents
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Tool making
A tool may be
An object that has been modified to fit a purpose’ or ‘An inanimate object that one uses or modifies in some way to cause a change in the environment, thereby facilitating ones achievement of a target goal’.
—Hauser, 2000
the use of physical objects other than the animal’s own body or appendages as a means to extend the physical influence realized by the animal
—Jones and Kamil, 1973
The most common are sticks or bits of stone.
Tool use implies an animal has knowledge of the relationship between objects and their effects.
Who were the first toolmakers? Various hominid species were capable of making tools. Toolmaking has two fundamental aspects: necessary physiology and the mental ability to use something for other than what it is. The whole hand is needed to identify toolmakers. The human hand has been evolving to accommodate tool use from as far back as 3.3 million years ago.
Finches on the Galapagos Islands use a twig, stick, or cactus spine as a tool. The finch manipulates the tool to dislodge invertebrate prey such as grubs from trees. The same tool can be used many times on many different trees. Finches may shorten the stick or spine to make it more manageable. The finches may also try various sticks or spines at one site before finding just the appropriate one that can reach and extract the prey item. A finch has a brain size or weight of about one gram.
The use of a muzyka rockowa manipulated using the beak to crack an ostrich egg would qualify the Egyptian vulture as a tool user. Many other species, including parrots, corvids and a range of passerines, have been noted as tool users.
Like the other great apes, orangutans (species: Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo abelii) are remarkably intelligent. One population of orangutans was found to use feeding tools regularly. An orangutan has a brain size or mass from 295-475 gms.
A chimpanzee gathering food with a stick
The West African Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) is the only animal besides humans known to routinely create and use specialized tools specifically for hunting. Chimpanzees near Kédougou, Senegal were observed to create spears by breaking off tree limbs, stripping them of their bark, and sharpening one end with their teeth. They then used these weapons to kill galagos sleeping in hollows. A chimpanzee has a brain size or weight from 320-500 gms.
A Bonobo using a stick to ‘fish’ for termites in San Diego Zoo
Stage 2
Stage 3
Extracting the insects
Tool use by a Gorilla
An adult female gorilla using a stick to gage the depth of water
Gorillas have been observed to (as shown above) use sticks to measure the depth of water.
Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago. Homo erectus had a brain size or weight from 775-1225 gms.
Some non-human animal species also use tools.
The controlled use of fire began around 1.5 million years ago.
A mother and juvenile Bottlenose Dolphin head to the sea floor
As of 2005, scientists have observed limited groups of Bottlenose Dolphins around the Australian Pacific using a basic tool. When searching for food on the sea floor, many of these dolphins were seen tearing off pieces of sponge and wrapping them around their “bottle nose” to prevent abrasions. The bottlenose dolphin has a brain size or mass of 1400-1700 gms.
Elephants in a reserve
Elephants show a remarkable ability to use tools, despite having no hands. Instead, they use their trunk like an arm. Elephants have been observed digging holes to napój wyskokowy water and then ripping bark from a tree, chewing it into the shape of a ball, filling in the hole and covering over it with sand to avoid evaporation. The elephant later went back to this spot for a napój wyskokowy. They also often use branches to swat flies or scratch themselves. The African elephant has a brain size or mass of ~5700 gms, while that of the Indian elephant ranges from 4000-6100 gms.
Reconstitution
Look up reconstitute in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Reconstitution is the act of constructing something anew, or in a different manner. When an organism can recall both a form and the procedures for using the form, it is reconstituting. It has stored a map of the object and the sequence of steps in its use.
Reification
Look up reification in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Reification is the process or result of regarding (something abstract) as a material thing. With at least two reconstitutions in memory and in the process of recall an organism puts a preria or more from one into the other, stores this and then uses this new procedure, it is engaging in reification. In general, reification is the application of particular procedures to areas not already designed for.
Abstraction
Look up abstract in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Abstracting is the act or process of concentrating in itself the qualities of something else. When a tool maker invents the steps (or a procedure) to perform some act and retains that procedure for its own sake, it is abstracting.
The human ability to think abstractly is unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Humans are one of only six species to pass the mirror badanie — which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an estetyka of itself — along with chimpanzees, orangutans, Bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants and European Magpies. It has also been argued that pigeons have passed the test.
Creativity
Look up creativity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Creativity is a mental and social process involving the generation of new ideas or concepts, or new associations of the creative mind between existing ideas or concepts. An alternative conception of creativness is that it is simply the act of making something new.
Cerebral Cortex
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
The frontal lobe (shown in blue) may play an important role in creativity
Divergent thinking is mediated by the frontal lobe. The brain’s frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation.
In neurobiology, “creative innovation might require coactivation and communication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are not strongly connected”.
Judgment is a mental faculty which is a component of intelligence or alternatively may be considered an additional faculty, apart from intelligence, with its own properties.
Look up wisdom in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Perhaps creative innovation may require coactivation and communication between brains that ordinarily are not strongly connected. In other words, eating or killing an organism that may be able to think and conceive in the abstract, may be counter to our own well being. Creating a means to communicate between us and anything that can be creative may be more beneficial. Before we communicate, perhaps we should strive to prevent eating or killing them.
Who or what is a person?
The myśl that any animal is a person has the support of legal scholars such as Alan Dershowitz On May 9, 2008, Columbia University Press published Animals as Persons: Essays on the Abolition of Animal Exploitation by Professor Bębny L. Francione of Rutgers University School of Law, a collection of writings that summarizes his work to date and makes the case for non-human animals as persons.
There are also hypothetical persons, sentient non-human persons such as sentient extraterrestrial life and self aware machines. The novel and animated series Ghost in the Shell touch on the potential of inorganic sentience, while classical works of fiction and science fiction regarding extraterrestrials have challenged long held traditional definitions.
The study or science of what is a person, persons, personhood or people, includes obuwie is not limited to characteristic actions, activities, qualities, operations, or phenomena. The term “person” is Middle English, from Old French persone, from Latin znakomitość meaning actor’s mask or a character in a play. Person in Greek πρόσωπον prosopon also means mask. Prosoponology is the collection and classification of masks.
Person
In the fields of law, philosophy, medicine, and others, the term person means the presence of certain characteristics that dotacja a legal, ethical, or moral standing. In philosophy and medicine, person may mean only humans who are capable of certain kinds of thought, and thus exclude embryos, early fetuses, or adults with certain types of brain damage.
Persons
The relationship between persons concerns individual rights and ethical responsibility.
Personhood
The term “personhood”, per se, refers to a state or condition, of being a person. It may emphasize having those qualities that confer individuality as indicating separateness, individualism. Individuality is the state or quality of being an individual; a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires.
Phenomena such as the perception and attribution of personhood have been scientifically studied.
- Human beings, after birth - once born, personhood is considered automatic in the normal course of events.
- Exceptions: - perhaps fetuses, the disabled, the profoundly and long term brain damaged, those in coma or other persistent vegetative states.
- Animals - certain animals may be granted personhood such as the Great Apes, cetaceans or elephants, due to the acknowledged intelligence and intricate societies of such species.
- Certain societal constructs - certain social entities, are considered legally as persons, for example some corporations, corporate, personhood, and other legal entities.
Speculatively, there are other likely categories of beings where personhood might be at issue:
- Unknown intelligent life-forms - for example, should alien life be found to exist, under what circumstances would they have personhood?
- Artificial life - at what point might human-created life be considered to have achieved personhood?
- Artificial intelligence - assuming the eventual creation of an intelligent and self-aware ustrój of sprzęt and software, what criteria would be used to confer or withhold personhood?
- Modified living beings - for example, how much of a human being can be replaced by artificial parts before personhood is lost?
- Further, if the brain is the reason humans have personhood, then if it and all its thought patterns, memories and other attributes could be transposed faithfully into some form of artificial device (for example to avoid illness such as brain cancer) would the patient still have personhood after the operation?
The personhood theory is a pivotal issue in the interdisciplinary field of bioethics. Being born as a member of the human species is secular grounds for the basic rights of liberty, freedom from persecution, and humanitarian care. The possibility of artificial minds with human-level competence challenges the identification of personhood protections exclusively with human species membership. Human exceptionalism (speciesism) counters that instituting a strict demarcation of personhood based on species membership is needed in odznaczenie to avoid the horrors of genocide (based on indoktrynacja dehumanizing one or more ethnicities) or the injustices of forced sterilization (as occurred in many countries to people with low I.Q. scores and prisoners).
Constraining personhood stan prawny within the human species based on basic capacities would tend to exclude, e.g., human stem cells, fetuses, and bodies that cannot recover awareness. Whereas recognizing any aspect of the human species would tend to include all forms of human bodies even if they have never had awareness, pre-people, or had awareness, obuwie could never have awareness again due to massive and irrecoverable brain damage, post-people.
The theoretical landscape of the personhood theory has been altered recently by controversy in the bioethics community concerning an emerging community of scholars, researchers, and activists identifying with an explicitly Transhumanist position, which supports morphological freedom, even if a person changed so much as to no longer be considered a member of the human species (by whatever kanon is used to determine that).
People
Perhaps all and only people are expected to be ethically responsible, and that all people deserve a varying degree of individual rights. There is less konsensus on whether only people deserve individual rights and whether people deserve greater individual rights than non-people. The rights of animals are an example of contention on this issue.
Peoples
The term “peoples”, the plural of people, often refers to a body of persons having racial or social ties, united by a common culture, tradition, or sense of kinship, that typically have common language, institutions, and beliefs,, and that often constitute a politically organized group.
It seems that the key ingredient in all these concepts of personhood is already known and apparent: the ability to think and conceive in the abstract. This simplicity is behind all that is included in such terms as “person”, “personhood”, people, etc. Indeed, it has already been deduced via studying tool making. And, it appears to be brain size or brain configuration dependent. In short, the answers are already known, obuwie perhaps there is a reluctance to admit them. A person is probably something that can think and conceive in the abstract.
See also
Look up person in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Look up prosoponology in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
- Anthropocentrism
- Being
- Consciousness
- Corporate Personhood Debate
- Great Ape personhood
- Juridical person
- Juristic person
- Metacognition
- Nonperson
- People
- People (disambiguation)
- Self-awareness
- Sentience
- Theory of mind
References
- ^ Hauser, 2000
- ^ Jones, T. B. & Kamil, A. C. 1973 Tool-making and tool-using in the northern blue jay. Science 180, 1076–1078.
- ^ Ann Gibbons “Paleoanthropology: Tracing the Identity of the First Toolmakers” Science 4 April 1997: Vol. 276. no. 5309, p. 32, DOI: 10.1126/science.276.5309.32
- ^ Tebbich, S., Taborsky, M., Fessl, B. & Dvorak, M. 2002. The ecology of tool use in the woodpecker finch (Cactospiza pallida). Ecology Letters, 5, 656-664.
- ^ Nathan J. Emery (2006) Cognitive ornithology: the evolution of avian intelligence. Phil. Stupor. R. Soc. B (2006) 361, 23–43
- ^ Crow making tools
- ^ “Roads through rainforest threaten our cultured cousins” (2003).
- ^ Pruetz JD, Bertolani P (March 2007). “Savanna chimpanzees, Przedwieczny troglodytes verus, hunt with tools”. Curr. Biol. 17 (5): 412–7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.042. PMID 17320393, http://www.current-biology.com/content/article/fulltext?uid=PIIS0960982207008019.
- ^ Clark JD, de Heinzelin J, Schick KD, et al (June 1994). “African Homo erectus: old radiometric ages and young Oldowan assemblages in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia”. Science (journal) 264 (5167): 1907–10. doi:10.1126/science.8009220. PMID 8009220.
- ^ William H. Calvin, “Rediscovery and the cognitive aspects of toolmaking: Lessons from the handaxe.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 25(3):403-404. See also http://WilliamCalvin.com/2002/BBS-Wynn.htm
- ^ “Cultural transmission of tool use in bottlenose dolphins”. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
- ^ Holdrege, Craig (Spring 2001). “Elephantine Intelligence”. In Context (The Nature Institute) (5), http://www.natureinstitute.org/pub/ic/ic5/elephant.htm. Retrieved on 30 October 2007.
- ^ Poole, Joyce (1996). Coming of Age with Elephants. Chicago, Illinois: Trafalgar Square, 131-133, 143-144, 155-157. ISBN 034059179X.
- ^ Robert W. Allan explores a few of these experiments on his webpage: http://ww2.lafayette.edu/~allanr/mirror.html
- ^ Plotnik JM, de Waal FB, Reiss D (November 2006). “Self-recognition in an Asian elephant”. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (45): 17053–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608062103. PMID 17075063.
- ^ Consciousness and the Symbolic Universe, by Dr. Jack Palmer, retrieved March 17, 2006.
- ^ Researchers home in on how brain handles abstract thought - retrieved July 29, 2006
- ^ Vandervert, L. (2003) How working memory and cognitive modeling functions of the cerebellum contribute to discoveries in mathematics. New Ideas in Psychology, 21, 159-175.
- ^ Vandervert, L. (2003) The neurophysiological basis of innovation. In L. V. Shavinina (Ed.) The international handbook on innovation (pp. 17-30). Oxford, England: Elsevier Science.
- ^ Vandervert, L., Schimpf, P., & Liu, H. (2007). How working memory and the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation . Creativity Research Journal, 19(1), 1-19.
- ^ Jung-Beeman, M., Bowden, E., Haberman, J., Frymiare, J., Arambel-Liu, S., Greenblatt, R., Reber, P., & Kounios, J. (2004). Neural activity when people solve verbal problems with insight. PLOS Biology, 2, 500-510.
- ^ Kenneth M Heilman, MD, Stephen E. Nadeau, MD, and David Q. Beversdorf, MD. “Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms” Neurocase (2003)
- ^ Sternberg, Robert J. (2003). Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80238-5.
- ^ Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 106. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.
- ^ Dershowitz, Alan. Rights from Wrongs: A Secular Theory of the Origins of Rights, 2004, pp. 198–99, and “Darwin, Meet Dershowitz,” The Animals’ Advocate, Winter 2002, volume 21.
- ^ “‘Personhood’ Redefined: Animal Rights Strategy Gets at the Essence of Being Human”, Association of American Medical Colleges, retrieved July 12, 2006.
- ^ “Animal law courses”, Animal Legal Defense Fund.
- ^ Wood, Wallace (1901). Cerebral science, studies in anatomical psychology: A Book for Artists, Physicians, and Teachers. London: Baillière, Tindall and Cox, ix. ISBN ?. OCLC 11895260.
- ^ Strawson, P.F. 1959. Individuals. London: Methuen: 104.
- ^ Locke, John. 1961. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. London:Dent: 280.
- ^ Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the Church (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997). ISBN 978-0881410297
- ^ Abbs 1986, cited in Klein 2005, pp.26-27
- ^ Klein, Anne Carolyn (1995) Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self. ISBN 0-8070-7306-7.
- ^ Person Perception. Second Edition. Schneider, Hastdorf, and Ellsworth. 1979, Addison Wesley ISBN 0-201-06768-4
- ^ Second-Language Fluency and Person Perception in China and the United States
- ^ Moravec H (July 1979). “Today’s computers, intelligent machines and our future”. Analog Science Fiction/ Science Fact 90 (7): 103–111.
- ^ Smith, Anthony D. (1987), The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Blackwell
- ^ Statistics Canada Definition of Ethnicity
- ^ T.H. Eriksen, Small places, large issues. An introduction to social and cultural anthropology (second edition, London 2001), 261 ff.
External links
- Carsten Korfmacher, ‘Personal Identity’, in the IEP
- “Person”. Catholic Encyclopedia. (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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